Kinds of birds and the polity of bees

Some people have already tried to use name-makings, so that the distinctive character of each kind might be recognized through these unfamiliar and strange names, as if by branding marks. They called some split-winged, like the eagles; others skin-winged, like the bats; others feathered, like the wasps; others sheath-winged, like the beetles and all those that are born inside certain cases and coverings, and when their sheath breaks open they are set free for flight. But for us, common usage is a sufficient indication of the distinctiveness of the kinds, along with the distinctions in Scripture concerning clean and unclean creatures.

So one kind is that of the flesh-eaters, and their equipment is suited to their manner of life: sharp talons, a hooked beak, and a pointed wing, so that the prey can be seized easily and, once torn apart, become food for the one who caught it. The equipment of the seed-pickers is different; that of those that feed on whatever they happen to find is different again. And among these there are very many differences.

Some of them are gregarious, except for the predatory ones; none of these is social except for the pairing of mates. Countless others have chosen the life of the flock, like doves, cranes, starlings, and jackdaws. Again, among these some have no ruler and are, so to speak, self-governing; others accept being arranged under a leader, like the cranes. And there is yet another difference among them, according to which some are stay-at-home and native to a place, while others are by nature inclined to depart very far, and for the most part to move away when winter approaches.

Many birds, when raised by hand, become tame and domesticated—except, of course, the weak ones, which because of their excessive timidity and lack of spirit cannot endure the constant disturbance of the hand. But some birds are human-companionable, accepting the same dwellings as we do; others are mountain-dwellers and lovers of solitude. The greatest difference is also the distinctive character of each one's voice. Some birds are chatterers and talkative; others are silent. Some are songful and have many voices; others are entirely without music and have no share in song. Some are imitative, either having the ability to imitate by nature or acquiring it through practice; others send forth a voice of one single type, unchangeable.

The rooster is proud; the peacock is a lover of beauty; doves and domestic hens are lustful, having the impulse to mate at every season. The partridge is deceitful and jealous, working knavishly with the hunters toward the capture.

There are countless differences, as we said, in their activities and their ways of life. And there are even some political ones among the irrational creatures—if indeed the mark of a political community is that the activity of each individual converges toward one common end, as one might see in the case of the bees. For their dwelling is common, their flight is common, and the work of all is one; and what is greatest, they set about their tasks under a king and a commander of some sort, not consenting to go out to the meadows until they see the king take the lead in flight. And their king is not elected by vote—for often the poor judgment of the people has set the worst man in power—nor does he hold his authority by lot, for the chances of the lot are irrational and often bring power to the lowest of all; nor does he sit in the royal palace by paternal succession, for such kings also become uneducated and ignorant of every virtue, for the most part through luxury and flattery. Rather, he has his preeminence over all from nature, excelling in size and in form and in the gentleness of his character.